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TECHNICAL WRITING
A L L I S O N G RO S S , A N N E M A R I E H A M L I N , B I L LY M E RC K , C H R I S RU B I O, J O D I N A A S ,
M E G A N S AVAG E , A N D M I C H E L E D E S I LVA
Open Oregon Educational Resources
Technical Writing by Allison Gross, Annemarie Hamlin, Billy Merck, Chris Rubio, Jodi Naas, Megan Savage, and Michele DeSilva is
licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise
noted.
C O N T E N T S
Acknowledgements vii
External Link Disclaimer viii
CC BY (Attribution)
Introduction 1
1. PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATIONS
1.1 Texting 7
1.2 E-mail 8
1.3 Netiquette 10
1.4 Memorandums 12
1.5 Letters 15
2. AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
2.1 Types of audiences 21
2.2 Audience analysis 22
2.3 Adapting your writing to meet your audiences needs 24
3. PROPOSALS
3.1 Some preliminaries 29
3.2 Types of proposals 30
3.3 Typical scenarios for the proposal 31
3.4 Common sections in proposals 32
3.5 Special assignment requirements 34
3.6 Proposals and audience 35
3.7 Revision checklist for proposals 36
4. INFORMATION LITERACY
4.1 Information formats 39
4.2 The information timeline 42
4.3 The research cycle 43
4.4 Research tools 44
4.5 Search strategies 49
4.6 Evaluate sources 55
5. CITATIONS AND PLAGIARISM
5.1 Citations 61
5.2 Plagiarism 65
6. PROGRESS REPORTS
6.1 Functions and Contents of Progress Reports 69
6.2 Timing and Format of Progress Reports 70
6.3 Organizational Patterns or Sections for Progress Reports 71
6.4 Other Parts of Progress Reports 72
6.5 Revision Checklist for Progress Reports 73
7. OUTLINES
7.1 Creating and using outlines 77
7.2 Developing the rough outline 79
8. CREATING AND INTEGRATING GRAPHICS
8.1 Deciding which graphics to include 83
8.2 Other considerations: audience 84
8.3 Other considerations: placement and context 86
8.4 Samples 87
8.5 Guidelines for graphics: a final review 90
9. ETHICS IN TECHNICAL WRITING
9.1 General Principles 95
9.2 Presentation of information 98
9.3 Typical Ethics Issues in Technical Writing 99
9.4 Ethics and documenting sources 102
9.5 Ethics, Plagiarism, and Reliable Sources 103
9.6 Professional ethics 104
10. TECHNICAL REPORTS: COMPONENTS AND DESIGN
10.1 Cover letter 107
10.2 Cover page 108
10.3 Abstract and executive summary 110
10.4 Table of contents 113
10.5 List of figures and tables 115
10.6 Introduction 117
10.7 Body of the report 119
10.8 Conclusions 124
11. BASIC DESIGN AND READABILITY IN PUBLICATIONS
11.1 On Style Conventions 133
11.2 Concept 1: Know Your Audience 135
11.3 Concept 2: Know your Purpose 141
11.4 Concept 3: Make Your Publication More Inviting Using Basic Principles of
Readability: CRAP
143
11.4 Concept 3: Make Your Publication More Inviting Using Basic Principles of
Readability: CRAP, continued
163
11.4 Concept 3: Make Your Publication More Inviting Using Basic Principles of
Readability: CRAP, continued
168
11.4 Concept 3: Make Your Publication More Inviting Using Basic Principles of
Readability: CRAP, continued
173
11.5 Slides and PowerPoint presentations 179
11.6 Conclusion 181
12. EMPLOYMENT MATERIALS
12.1 Preparation 185
12.2 Resume Formats 189
12.3 Resume Sections and Guidelines 195
12.4 Cover Letters 201
12.5 Next Steps 204
13. COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES
13.1 Understanding Culture 209
13.2 Understanding Cultural Context 211
13.3 Deepening Cultural Understanding 212
13.4 Defining Intercultural Communication 214
14. THINKING ABOUT WRITING
14.1 Getting Curious 219
14.2 Genre, Genre Sets, Genre Systems 221
14.3 Methods for Studying Genres 228
14.4 Conclusion 236
AC K N O W L E D G E M E N T S
About this free online technical writing textbook
Much of this text, published under a Creative Commons license, was originally developed by Dr.
David McMurrey, who is both a technical writer and a college instructor. For more about him and his
original work, please visit his biography page at: https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/index.html.
He kindly gave his text a CC-BY license at our request so that we could adapt our text from it. We
extend our sincere appreciation to Dr. McMurrey, the team of consultants at Saylor University whose
work shared via open educational resources is also featured in this text, and the host of educators,
librarians, and professionals who have shared their creations with a Creative Commons license. Our
thanks as well to our colleague, Dr. Eleanor Sumpter-Latham, whose work we consulted and adapted
into this text.
Additional materials have been adapted or created by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele
DeSilva of Central Oregon Community College, and Megan Savage, Jodi Naas, Allison Gross,
and Billy Merck of Portland Community College.
We also extend our gratitude to Open Oregon Educational Resources for the grant funding to
pursue this project and especially to Amy Hofer of Open Oregon for her knowledgeable and helpful
answers to many questions.
TECHNICAL WRITING vii
E X T E R N A L L I N K D I S C L A I M E R
This textbook links to external websites over which the authors have no control. The authors have
made efforts to ensure that external links are accurate and operational, but problems are inevitable. If
you find a problem, please report it to Michele DeSilva at [email protected]
viii ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA
I N T RO D U C T I O N
Technical writing courses introduce you to some of the most important aspects of writing in the
worlds of science, technology, and businessin other words, the kind of writing that scientists,
nurses, doctors, computer specialists, government officials, engineers, and other such people do as a
part of their regular work. The skills learned in technical writing courses can be useful in other fields
as well, including education and social sciences.
To learn how to write effectively for the professional world, you will study common types of
reports, special format items such as lists and headings, simple techniques for creating and using
graphics in reports, and some techniques for producing professional-looking final copy.
Technical writing courses build on what you have learned in other writing courses. But there is
plenty new to learn! If you currently have a job in which you do some writing, you will discover that
you can put what you learn in your technical writing course to immediate use.
A B O U T T E C H N I C A L W R I T I N G
While technical communication is essential in a wide range of fields and occupations, technical
writing is also a fully professional field of its own with degree programs, certifications,
andyes!even theory. It is a good field with a lot of growth and income potential, and an
introductory technical writing course is a good way to start if you are interested in a career in this
field or will work in a career in which writing is a component.
W O R K P L AC E W R I T I N G
However, many students of technical writing courses are not necessarily planning for a career as a
technical writer. That is why this course provides you with an introduction to the kinds of writing
skills you need in practically any technically oriented professional job. No matter what sort of
professional work you do, you are likely to do some writingand much of it may be technical in
nature. The more you know about some basic technical writing skills, the better job of writing youre
likely to do. And that will be good for the projects you work on, for the organizations you work in,
andmost of allgood for you and your career.
T H E M E A N I N G O F T E C H N I C A L
Technical communicationor technical writing, as the course is often calledis not writing about a
specific technical topic such as computers, but about any technical topic. The term technical refers
to knowledge that is not widespread, that is more the territory of experts and specialists. Whatever
your major is, you are developing an expertiseyou are becoming a specialist in a particular technical
TECHNICAL WRITING 1
area. And whenever you try to write or say anything about your field, you are engaged in technical
communication.
I M P O RTA N C E O F AU D I E N C E
Another key part of the definition of technical communication is the receiver of the informationthe
audience. Technical communication is the delivery of technical information to readers (or listeners
or viewers) in a manner that is adapted to their needs, level of understanding, and background. In
fact, this audience element is so important that it is one of the cornerstones of this course: you are
challenged to write about technical subjects but in a way that a beginnera nonspecialistcould
understand. This ability to translate technical information to nonspecialists is a key skill to any
technical communicator. In a world of rapid technological development, many people are constantly
falling behind. Technology companies are constantly struggling to find effective ways to help
customers or potential customers understand the advantages or the operation of their new products.
So relax! You dont have to write about computers or rocket sciencewrite about the area of
technical specialization you know or are learning about. And plan to write about it in such a way that
even Grandad can understand!
R E A L LY T E C H N I C A L W R I T I N G
Keep relaxing, but you should know that professional technical writers do in fact write about very
technical stuffinformation that they cannot begin to master unless they go back for a Ph.D. But wait
a minute! The technical documents have to ship with the product in less than nine months! How do
they manage? Professional technical writers rely on these strategies to ensure the technical accuracy
of their work:
Study of books, articles, reports, websites related to the product
Product specifications: what the product is supposed to do, how it is designed
Interviews with subject matter experts: the product specialists, developers, engineers
Product meetings during the development cycle
Live demonstrations of the product
Familiarization with similar, competing products
Experimenting with working models of the product
Subject matter experts review of technical writers work for technical accuracy and completeness
Of course, experienced technical writers will tell you that product development moves so fast that
specifications are not always possible and that working models of the product are rarely available.
Thats why the subject matter experts review is often the most important.
T E C H N I C A L- W R I T I N G A N D AC A D E M I C W R I T I N G C O U R S E S
You have probably taken at least one academic writing course before this one, so you will be familiar
with some of the practices of writing for your college classes. The video below will introduce you to
some of the differences between academic and technical writing.
2 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA
In technical-writing courses, the main focus is typically the technical report, due toward the end of the
term. Just about everything you do in the course is aimed at developing skills needed to produce that
report. Of course, some technical-writing courses begin with a resume and application letter (often
known as the cover letter), but after that you plan the technical report, then write a proposal in which
you propose to write that report. Then you write short documents (memos, emails, outlines, drafts)
where you get accustomed to using things like headings, lists, graphics, and special noticesnot
to mention writing about technical subject matter in a clear, concise, understandable way that is
appropriate for a specific audience.
Caution: You should be aware that technical-writing courses are writing-intensive. You will
probably write more in your technical-writing course than in any other course you have ever taken. If
you are taking a full load of classes, working full time, and juggling unique family obligations, please
consider whether this is the right time for you to take technical writing. Consult with your professor
about the workload for this class in order to make your decision.
C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N
This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon
Community College, from Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey CC: BY 4.0
TECHNICAL WRITING 3
1. PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATIONS
Professional communication in written form requires skill and expertise. From text messages to
reports, how you represent yourself with the written word counts. Writing in an online environment
requires tact, skill, and an awareness that what you write may be there forever. From memos to letters,
from business proposals to press releases, your written business communication represents you and
your company: your goal is to make it clear, concise, and professional.
Chapter Attribution Information
This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon
Community College, from the following sources:
Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey CC: BY 4.0
Professional Writing by Saylor Academy CC: BY 3.0
Communicating Online: Netiquette by UBC Centre for Teaching, Learning and Technology
CC: BY-SA 4.0
1 . 1 T E X T I N G
Text messages and e-mails are part of our communication landscape, and skilled business
communicators consider them a valuable tool to connect.
Whatever digital device you use, written communication in the form of brief messages, or texting,
has become a common way to connect. It is useful for short exchanges, and is a convenient way to stay
connected with others when talking on the phone would be cumbersome. Texting is not useful for
long or complicated messages, and careful consideration should be given to the audience. Although
texting will not be used in this class as a form of professional communication, you should be aware of
several of the principles that should guide your writing in this context.
When texting, always consider your audience and your company, and choose words, terms, or
abbreviations that will deliver your message appropriately and effectively.
T I P S F O R E F F E C T I V E B U S I N E S S T E X T I N G
Know your recipient. ? % dsct may be an understandable way to ask a close associate what the
proper discount is to offer a certain customer, but if you are writing a text to your boss, it might be
wiser to write, what % discount does Murray get on $1K order?
Anticipate unintentional misinterpretation. Texting often uses symbols and codes to represent
thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Given the complexity of communication, and the useful but limited
tool of texting, be aware of its limitation and prevent misinterpretation with brief messages.
Contacting someone too frequently can border on harassment. Texting is a tool. Use it when
appropriate but dont abuse it.
Dont text and drive. Research shows that the likelihood of an accident increases dramatically if
the driver is texting behind the wheel. 1 Being in an accident while conducting company business
would reflect poorly on your judgment as well as on your employer.
C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N
This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon
Community College, from the following sources:
Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey CC: BY 4.0
Professional Writing by Saylor Academy CC: BY 3.0
1. Houston Chronicle. (2009, September 23). Deadly distraction: Texting while driving, twice as risky as drunk driving, should be banned. Houston
Chronicle (3 STAR R.O. ed.), p. B8. Retrieved from http://www.chron.com/opinion/editorials/article/Deadly-distraction-Texting-while-
driving-should-1592397.php
TECHNICAL WRITING 7
1 . 2 E – M A I L
E-mail is familiar to most students and workers. It may be used like text, or synchronous chat, and
it can be delivered to a cell phone. In business, email has largely replaced print hard copy letters for
external (outside the company) correspondence, and in many cases, it has taken the place of memos
for internal (within the company) communication.1 E-mail can be very useful for messages that have
slightly more content than a text message, but it is still best used for fairly brief messages. Many
businesses use automated e-mails to acknowledge communications from the public, or to remind
associates that periodic reports or payments are due. You may also be assigned to populate a form
e-mail in which standard paragraphs are used, but you choose from a menu of sentences to make the
wording suitable for a particular transaction.
E-mails may be informal in personal contexts, but business communication requires attention to
detail, awareness that your e-mail reflects you and your company, and a professional tone so that it
may be forwarded to any third party if needed. E-mail often serves to exchange information within
organizations. Although e-mail may have an informal feel, remember that when used for business, it
needs to convey professionalism and respect. Never write or send anything that you wouldnt want
read in public or in front of your company president.
T I P S F O R E F F E C T I V E B U S I N E S S E – M A I L S
As with all writing, professional communications require attention to the specific writing context,
and it may surprise you that even elements of form can indicate a writers strong understanding of
audience and purpose. The principles explained here apply to the educational context as well; use
them when communicating with your instructors and classroom peers.
Open with a proper salutation. Proper salutations demonstrate respect and avoid mix-ups in case
a message is accidentally sent to the wrong recipient. For example, use a salutation like Dear Ms.
X (external) or Hi Barry (internal). Never use the title Mrs. as you cannot assume a woman is
married. If the gender of a person is not evident, use their entire name, like this: Dear Sam Jones
Include a clear, brief, and specific subject line. This helps the recipient understand the essence of
the message. For example, Proposal attached or Your question of 10/25.
Close with a signature. Identify yourself by creating a signature block that automatically contains
your name and business contact information.
Avoid abbreviations. An e-mail is not a text message, and the audience may not find your wit
cause to ROTFLOL (roll on the floor laughing out loud).
1. Guffey, M. (2008). Essentials of business communication (7th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson/Wadsworth.
8 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA
Be brief. Omit unnecessary words.
Use a good format. Divide your message into brief paragraphs for ease of reading. A good e-mail
should get to the point and conclude in three small paragraphs or less.
Reread, revise, and review. Catch and correct spelling and grammar mistakes before you press
send. It will take more time and effort to undo the problems caused by a hasty, poorly written e-
mail than to get it right the first time.
Reply promptly. Watch out for an emotional responsenever reply in angerbut make a habit of
replying to all e-mails within twenty-four hours, even if only to say that you will provide the
requested information in forty-eight or seventy-two hours.
Use Reply All sparingly. Do not send your reply to everyone who received the initial e-mail
unless your message absolutely needs to be read by the entire group.
Avoid using all caps. Capital letters are used on the Internet to communicate emphatic emotion
or yelling and are considered rude.
Test links. If you include a link, test it to make sure it is working.
E-mail ahead of time if you are going to attach large files (audio and visual files are often quite
large) to prevent exceeding the recipients mailbox limit or triggering the spam filter.
Give feedback or follow up. If you dont get a response in twenty-four hours, e-mail or call. Spam
filters may have intercepted your message, so your recipient may never have received it.
Figure 1 shows a sample email that demonstrates the principles listed above.
Figure 1. Sample email
From: Steve Jobs <[email protected]>
To: Human Resources Division <[email protected]>
Date: September 12, 2015
Subject: Safe Zone Training
Dear Colleagues:
Please consider signing up for the next available Safe Zone workshop offered by the College. As you know, our department is working toward
increasing the number of Safe Zone volunteers in our area, and I hope several of you may be available for the next workshop scheduled for Friday,
October 9.
For more information on the Safe Zone program, please visit http://www.cocc.edu/multicultural/safe-zone-training/
Please let me know if you will attend.
Steve Jobs
CEO Apple Computing
[email protected]
C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N
This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon
Community College, from the following sources:
Online Technical Writing by David McMurrey CC: BY 4.0
Professional Writing by Saylor Academy CC: BY 3.0
TECHNICAL WRITING 9
1 . 3 N E T I Q U E T T E
Netiquette refers to etiquette, or protocols and norms for communication, on the Internet. We create
personal pages, post messages, and interact via online technologies as a normal part of our careers,
but how we conduct ourselves can leave a lasting image, literally. The photograph you posted on your
Facebook page or Twitter feed may have been seen by your potential employer, or that nasty remark
in a post may come back to haunt you later.
Following several guidelines for online postings, as detailed below, can help you avoid
embarrassment later.
K N O W YO U R C O N T E X T
Introduce yourself.
Avoid assumptions about your readers. Remember that culture influences communication style
and practices.
Familiarize yourself with policies on Acceptable Use of IT Resources at your organization. (One
example of a colleges acceptable use policy can be found here: https://www.cocc.edu/
departments/its/network-administration/files/
cocc_acceptable_use_of_information_technology_resources_12.pdf/ )
R E M E M B E R T H E H U M A N
Remember there is a person behind the words. Ask for clarification before making judgement.
Check your tone before you publish.
Respond to people using their names.
Remember that culture and even gender can play a part in how people communicate.
Remain authentic and expect the same of others.
Remember that people may not reply immediately. People participate in different ways, some just
by reading the communication rather than jumping into it.
Avoid jokes and sarcasm; they often dont translate well to the online environment.
R E C O G N I Z E T H AT T E X T I S P E R M A N E N T
Be judicious. What you say online is difficult to retract later.
Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.
10 ALLISON GROSS, ANNEMARIE HAMLIN, BILLY MERCK, CHRIS RUBIO, JODI NAAS, MEGAN SAVAGE, AND MICHELE DESILVA
Agree on ground rules for text communication (formal or informal; seek clarification whenever
needed, etc) if you are working collaboratively.
AVO I D F L A M I N G : R E S E A RC H B E F O R E YO U R E AC T
Accept and forgive mistakes.
Consider your responsibility to the group and to the working environment.
Seek clarification before reacting.
Ask your supervisor for guidance.*
R E S P E C T P R I VAC Y A N D O R I G I N A L I D E A S
Quote the original author if you are responding to a specific point made by someone else.
Ask the author of an email for permission before forwarding the communication.
* Sometimes, online behavior can appear so disrespectful and even hostile that it requires
attention and follow up. In this case, let your supervisor know right away so that the right
resources can be called upon to help.
C H A P T E R AT T R I B U T I O N I N F O R M AT I O N
This chapter was derived by Annemarie Hamlin, Chris Rubio, and Michele DeSilva, Central Oregon
Community College, from Communicating Online: Netiquette by UBC Centre for Teaching,
Learning and Technology CC: BY-SA 4.0
TECHNICAL WRITING 11
1 . 4 M E M O R A N D U M S
A memo (or memorandum, meaning reminder) is normally used for communicating policies,
procedures, or related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all
perspective (like mass communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-
on-one, interpersonal communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given
project, or to inform a specific group within a company of an event, action, or observance.
M E M O P U R P O S E
A memos purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a
call to action. All organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial,
informal communication network within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often
characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo. On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone
else is going to be laid off and start passing the news around. Rumors change and transform as they
are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the word is that they are shutting down
your entire department.
One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees
what is going on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send
a memo explaining the changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action,
they may also issue a memorandum. For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the
Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that all employees should buy at least $1,600 worth of
Panasonic products. The company president noted that if everyone supported the company with
purchases, it would benefit all.1
While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they
often represent the business or organizations interests. They may also include statements that align
business and employee interest, an
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